Timeline of Strategic Aviation

Second World War

1939-1940

1 March 1939

After four years as CG US GHQAF, MG F. Max Andrews is demoted to COL and made air officer to VIII Corps in San Antonio, TX.  Andrews is punished because of a highly-publicized speech he gave to the National Aeronautic Association on 16 January, wherein he labeled the US a “sixth-rate airpower” with less than 400 combat aircraft.  The speech was a major embarrassment to Secretary of War Harry H. Woodring (D-KS), who had previously assured the nation about its air strength in the face of European saber-rattling.  Andrews is replaced by MG Delos C. Emmons and exiled to the very position that Billy Mitchell was in 1925.  The officer Andrews replaces is COL Hugh J. Knerr.  Knerr had once been on Andrews's staff but was moved when CSA GEN Malin Craig forced Andrews to purge his staff in February 1938.  A final humiliation, Knerr is forced into an early-retirement on trumped-up medical charges.  Knerr and Andrews are returned to senior air commands after the outbreak of war.

An exercise held at Fort Benning, GA sees US GHQAF Boeing B-17s and Douglas B-18s bomb a battleship outline 600 ft by 105 ft in size.   This demonstration utilizes the new Norden bombsight, with ten out of the twelve bombs dropped directly hitting the target.

A Dutch-Swiss emigree, Carl Norden was originally an engineer with Sperry Gyroscope, whose designed a bombsight whose sighting automatically signaled the Pilot's Directional Indicator (PDI) in 1924.  This was upgraded in 1930 with an analog computer design which calculated time-of-drop internally, eliminating the human factor in calculations by having the bombardier merely input variables such as altitude, airspeed, and drift.  The success of this new design was immediately evident and Norden was able to set up his own company in 1931.  The US Army was also interested.  Throughout 19-28 December 1927, the 2BG took part in a highly-publicized exercise to destroy the Pee Dee River Bridge near Albemarle, NC (then marked for an artificial lake), and while the tests brought forth valuable lessons - namely, that 'bombing on the leader' was more effective than bombing in small groups - accuracy was shockingly poor.  As such, the Air Corps purchased their first Norden in 1929, with the GHQAF ordering its first production run in 1934.  The human factor in keeping the airplane stable is later eliminated with the introduction of all-electric autopilots such as the Sperry A-5 and Honeywell C-1.

Army interest in the sight is bitterly resisted by the Navy, who have legal precedence in Norden procurement.  One unintended consequence of this is the damaging of technological relations with Great Britain, who showed great interest in the sight after this day's demonstration is witnessed by a mission led by Sir Henry T. Tizard.  Army frustration with this arrangement was such that they turned to Sperry to develop their own computing sight in 1937.  This rivalry is finally put to rest 4 August 1943 when the Army standardizes the Norden over the Sperry following the embarrassing revelation that the Navy closed facilities storing surplus Nordens the previous May.

Much of the preference for the Norden over the Sperry is due to the CEO of the Carl L. Norden Co., Ted Barth.  While the sight is classified 'top secret' - to the point that photography is prohibited and its operators are required to take loyalty oaths - its existence is nevertheless played up in publicity, famously claiming that the sight is capable of “putting a bomb in a pickle barrel.”  The Norden is indeed capable of uncanny accuracy and remains in usage as late as the Vietnam War (1964-1973).  However, poor European weather negates the positive results often found in the clear skies of the American West, with an average target error of 1,673 ft complicating the fact that the standard AN-M64 500 lb bomb only leaves, on average, a 20 ft crater.

The BLB nasal oxygen mask is standardized for USAAC use on this date.  The BLB is the first modern oxygen mask adopted by the US military.  Developed by Walter M. Boothby, W. Randolph Lovelace II, and Arthur H. Bulbulian of the Mayo Clinic, the BLB oxygen mask was originally sold earlier that year to airline companies as a means of marketing flights at higher altitudes.  While the requirement for oxygen on high-altitude flight was noted from the onset of the Great War, painfully little advance was made until now in the development of an efficient oxygen mask.  The BLB mask, with its ridiculous nose piece, uses a continuous flow regulator in conjunction with a high-pressure system.  Officially designated the A-7, the BLB is replaced on 1 May 1940 with the A-8, which updates the design to cover the entire mouth.  The A-8 and its conjoining system remained in use for much of the Second World War.

Click here to see Northwest Airlines passengers wear the BLB Oxygen Mask.

Also on this date, a special volunteer board, chaired by Mildred Yount (wife of BG Barton K. Yount), selects “The Wild Blue Yonder” from a group of finalists to be the USAAC’s service anthem.  Written by CPT Robert M. Crawford, a reservist who tours airshows as “the flying baritone,” the song boldly declares “we’ll live in fame or die in flames, nothing can stop the Army Air Corps!”  With a few adjustments, the song remains the service anthem of the current US Air Force.

Imperial Airway’s Short Empire flying boat Cabot is refueled via a converted Handley Page Harrow tanker as a demonstration over London, UK for its upcoming regular trans-Atlantic service.  Mid-air refueling allows the airline to save weight on takeoff by taking on minimal fuel, then topping off said fuel once airborne.

On 24 June 1939, US airline Pan Am inaugurated regular trans-Atlantic service with Boeing 314 Yankee Clipper, the line flying from Baltimore MD to Horta in the Azores, then onto Foyne, Ireland.  Pan Am CEO Juan T. Trippe oversaw the meteoric rise of his company via government subsidies to combat incursion of foreign airlines into the western hemisphere.  Trippe skillfully expanded this to include a trans-Pacific service (the so-called "China Clipper") and arranged for a trans-Atlantic service by partnering with Britain’s Imperial Airways (soon to be merged with British Airways to form British Overseas Airways Corp. or BOAC).

Lacking aircraft of similar performance, Imperial sought the services of famed test pilot Sir Alan B. Cobham.  In 1934 Cobham formed Flight Refueling Ltd., improving upon an in-air refueling technique first developed by Flt Lt Richard L. R. Atcherley.  The system worked thusly: the tanker and the receiver aircraft both extended lines, with the tanker line grappling the receiver line upon contact.  When this was accomplished, the tanker reeled in the receiver’s line, connected it to the fuel hose, and the hose then reeled into the receiver along the same line.  The grappled-line, looped hose system is the first mid-air refueling method to see regular service.

Imperial Airways flies 15 trans-Atlantic crossings using the grappled-line, looped hose system before the outbreak of war brings these flights to a halt.

RAF BC launches 15 Bristol Blenheims and 14 Vickers Wellingtons against the battlecruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer, and the light cruiser Emden near Brunsbüttel, Germany.  Avoiding the targeting of civilians and prohibited from using bases in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, RAF BC focuses its initial strategy on naval targets (provided they are not in port).  Having failed to locate any ships the previous day, this day’s strike sees the RAF’s first aerial engagement of the war.  The four squadrons are intercepted by Bf-109s of JG77, with Fwl Hans Troitsch making the first aerial victory of the Western bombing campaign: Vickers Wellington "H for Harry" (L4275, 9 Squadron).  Other firsts include the RAF’s first loss, a Bristol Blenheim (N6184, 107 Squadron) shot down by AAA fire, and the RAF’s first POW (Flt Sgt George Booth).  The strike reveals serious deficiencies within the RAF as bombers are launched haphazardly with inadequate loads and malfunctioning equipment; worse, pitifully few pilots have experience in formation flight.  Bombing operations are halted for a period afterwards, resuming on 29 September.  This halt does not affect RAF BC's other operations, which primarily entail dropping propaganda leaflets over German cities, with the first flight over Berlin taking place on 1 October.

The first flight of the Handley-Page Halifax takes place.  Like the Short Stirling, the Halifax is designed to meet a call from the Air Ministry for a bomber capable of operating throughout the British Empire, but in the more traditional twin-engine format.  Competing against the A.V. Roe (Avro) Manchester and Vickers-Armstrong Warwick (a variant of the Vickers Wellington), the Halifax is aided by a later Air Ministry allowance for a four-engine redesign.  Teething problems with the new Rolls-Royce Vulture, the engine used in the competing aircraft, suggested quadrupling the older Rolls-Royce Merlin was the safer option (later Halifax variants use the powerful Bristol Hercules radial engine).  While the Halifax later becomes an effective bomber, it ultimately falls out of favor with the ascension of Air Mshl Arthur T. Harris to the CINC RAF BC in 1942.  The reason is the aircraft's bombbay.  Despite the Halifax and Stirling boasting massive bombbays by contemporary standards (13,000 lbs and 14,000 lbs compared to the Boeing B-17’s 6,000 lbs), the design of the two is such that they cannot carry the popular 4,000 lb “blockbuster” bomb.  Nevertheless, 6,176 Halifaxes are built, serving RAF Bomber and Coastal Command with distinction, with the last Halifaxes being retired in 1962.

Only two fully-restored Handley Page Halifaxes currently exist, with one example on display at the Yorkshire Air Museum in Elvington, UK and the other on display at the National Air Force Museum of Canada in Trenton, ON.

Spurred by news that the heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spree was scuttled near Uruguay that morning, RAF BC launches 24 Vickers Wellingtons on a reconnaissance-in-force near Heligoland Bight.  Postwar accounts from both sides recognize this event as the first major air battle of the Second World War.

The flight is a disaster.  The route is poorly conceived and formation discipline inadequate; in fact, of the three squadrons involved, the one that holds its formation this day (149 Squadron) escapes with minimal losses.  In truth, RAF formation doctrine is unclear and contradictory, stressing the importance of tight formations for mutual protection but advising against any "unwieldy" formation of more than 12 aircraft.  Formation training is lacking because the greater concern is AAA-fire, with losses to German interceptors often being dismissed because so many bombers lacked powered turrets.  As such, great faith is placed in the Wellington, the only frontline bomber with a powered turret.  German interceptors are however by this time familiar with the Wellington's armament, avoiding rear-attacks and now attacking across the beam.  Since the bombers lack self-sealing fuel tanks, the Wellingtons prove frightfully flammable and the heavily-armed Bf-110, in particular, proves an effective bomber-destroyer. 

This day also sees the first use of German early-warning radar (code-named FREYA), which gives German interceptors an eight minute warning of the British attack.   Despite an easily avoidable delay which allows the British to hit their targets prior to interception, the success of FREYA is readily apparent and eleven radar stations are erected in Western Germany by the spring of 1940 (not including those in occupied-France).  In the wake of a publicity fallout, CINC RAF BC Air Mshl Edgar R. Ludlow-Hewitt oversees the transition of bomber units to night operations in the following weeks, a policy which RAF doctrine is designed to easily accommodate.  By contrast, the Luftwaffe begins to become somewhat complacent with its day-fighter force, progressing little in regard to tactics and equipment until the beginning of the US offensive in 1942.

German Army Group A (GenObt K. R. Gerd von Rundstedt), consisting of the Fourth, Twelfth, and Sixteenth Armies, Army Group B (GenObt M A. F. F. Fedor von Bock), consisting of the Sixth and Eighteenth Armies, and Army Group C (GenObt Wilhelm J. F. Ritter von Leeb), consisting of the First and Seventh Armies, implement FALL GEIB (Case Yellow), invading the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France.  They are joined by the Italian First (Gen Pietro Pintor) and Fourth Armies (Gen Alfredo Guzzoni) following a declaration of war on 10 June.

These invasions are shockingly effective and strong notice is taken of the German’s use of tactical airpower.  Therefore, it is ironic that the Germans also launch the first major strategic bombing operation of the war during this period.  With the advance stalling at Rotterdam, an opportunity is presented to surrender the city under threat of bombardment on 13 May.  Poor communication results in the strike being launched the next day regardless, with 57 out of 100 He-111s dropping their loads before ground flares signal them to abort (the recall order was not heard).  The wooden buildings of the city's medieval center are hit with incendiaries and the city burns uncontrollably.  Responsibility of whom launched this strike, and its failure to heed recall, remains heavily contested.  (884 killed)

With French resistance collapsing despite total commitment of their reserves, the British Expeditionary Force (FM Lord John S. S. P. Vereker) begins evacuations from Dunkirk on 26 May.  French PM Paul Reynaud ultimately resigns on 16 June following a breakdown of cabinet support, with his successor, H. Philippe B. O. Pétain, signing an armistice of 21 June.  Allied forces are now completely driven from the European continent.

RAF BC launches this night 24 Armstrong Whitworth Whitleys, 36 Handley Page Hampdens, and 39 Vickers Wellingtons against a series of industrial targets in the German Ruhr valley, with the three largest forces amounting to nine aircraft each.  German forces invaded France five days prior, the same day that the Rt. Hon. Winston L. Spencer-Churchill (CP) formally replaced the Rt. Hon. A. Neville Chamberlain (CP) as prime minister, and both political parties were in full agreement that limitations against strategic targets were to be lifted provided they be of a military nature.  As such, this is the first strategic air operation against Germany in the Second World War.  Taking into account additional minor operations against Belgium, this is also the first RAF BC operation involving more than 100 aircraft.

Accuracy is poor and a single civilian, Franz Romeike, is killed this night when, despite blackout conditions, he carries a light while walking to his outhouse.

RAF BC launches 24 Armstrong Whitworth Whitleys, 52 Vickers Wellingtons, and 54 Handley Page Hampdens against the railyards of Cologne and the oil refineries of Hamburg and Bremen, Germany.  This if the first strategic air operation targeting Petroleum/Oil/Lubrication (POL) targets.  No RAF BC aircraft are lost this night.  (47 killed)

Like much of Europe, Germany is incredibly dependent on foreign oil, and the appointment of PM the Rt. Hon. Winston L. Spencer-Churchill (CP) on 10 May 1940 signified a catastrophic blow in this regard.  Churchill immediately halted all peace feelers with Germany, and with the British naval blockade now permanently in place, Germany could no longer depend on maritime oil imports.  With the only real European producer of oil outside the Soviet Union being Romania, the natural result is strong support for pro-German factions in the Romanian government (who depose the king this September).

Even with Romania's aid, oil usage in occupied-Europe is so tight that this month sees Generalbevollmächtigten für das Kraftfahrwesen (General Plenipotentiary for Motor Transport) Adolf von Schell seriously suggest a partial demotorization of the German military – even though only 30 of Germany’s 151 divisions in the east are motorized units!  With a total fuel rationing program already in place, an inability to secure peace with Britain, and a year's fuel reserves remaining, German Führer Adolf Hitler pushes plans for an invasion of the Soviet Union to begin the following year in the hopes of quickly securing Russia’s oil centers.

British Air Ministry observers noted these developments early-on and long pushed for a sustained bombing campaign against Germany’s precious synthetic oil plants.  Using processes developed by Friedrich K. R. Bergius, Franz J. E. Fischer, and Hans Tropsch, these plants produce synthetic oil using coal and are Germany's only real domestic producer of the substance.  Despite the soundness of such a campaign, fickle demands from the Air Ministry prevent the RAF from continuing a sustained offensive against German oil refineries.  In truth this makes sense, as RAF BC is incapable of the precision necessary to seriously affect German oil production at this point in the war.

1 July 1940

13 August 1940

The Luftwaffe launches 94 Do-17s, 111 He-111s, 109 Ju-87s, and 12 Ju-88s, escorted by 407 Bf-109s and 40 Bf-110s, against the airfields of Biggin Hill, Ford, Gosport, Hornchurch, Kenley, North Weld, and Thorney Island, as well as the radar station of Poling, England.  The largest confrontation of the Battle of Britain, this day is later immortalized as ‘the Hardest Day.’

Rather than dispersing strikes, CG Luftflotte 2 GenFM Albert Kesselring recommended focusing on a small number of RAF airfields, launching disproportionately large numbers of escort fighters to wither down RAF interceptor numbers, which they believed were already close to exhaustion.  More than anything, this was a result of poor intelligence, as while RAF FC is struggling to keep up its number of experienced pilots, aircraft manufacturers are at peak production and large numbers of new pilots are already being assigned to units in the north.  Likewise, many of the airfields targeted this day (Ford, Gosport, and Thorney Island) are not FC installations at all - a common mistake made throughout the Battle of Britain.

A rather more horrific mistake occurs when poor timing results in the majority of Ju-87s reaching their targets without escort.  Painfully slow, the dive bombers suffer massive losses, resulting in the type being withdrawn from further major operations over Britain.  Another disaster occurs when, due to weather delays, a special low-level Do-17 attack on Kenley arrives well-ahead of the other forces.  Due to the heavy losses of this strike (four out of nine), low-level operations are also abandoned after this day.

Dissatisfied with the performance of his fighter units, RLM RM Hermann W. Göring makes several significant changes after this day.  First, he relieves a series of command officers deemed out-of-touch, hastily promoting accomplished fighter pilots like Werner Mölders (age 27) and Adolf J. F. Galland (age 28) to senior positions.  This change results in no significant improvement other than a greater outspokenness from subordinates.  One particular exchange between Galland and Göring becomes legendary within the Luftwaffe:

The theme of fighter protection was chewed over again and again. Goering clearly represented the point of view of the bombers and demanded close and rigid protection.  The bomber, he said, was more important than record bag figures.  I tried to point out that the Me-109 was superior in the attack and not so suitable for purely defensive purposes as the Spitfire, which, although a little slower, was much more maneuverable.  He rejected my objection.  We received many more harsh words.  Finally, as his time ran short, he grew more amiable and asked what were the requirements for our squadrons. Mölders asked for a series of Me-109's with more powerful engines.  The request was granted.  "And you ?"  Goering turned to me.  I did not hesitate long.  "I should like an outfit of Spitfires for my group."  After blurting this out, I had rather a shock, for it was not really meant that way.  Of course, fundamentally I preferred our Me-109 to the Spitfire, but I was unbelievably vexed at the lack of understanding and the stubbornness with which the command gave us orders we could not execute – or only incompletely – as a result of many shortcomings for which we were not to blame.  Such brazen-faced impudence made even Göring speechless.  He stamped off, growling as he went

More important, however, is the transfer of the majority of fighter units to Luftflotte 2, limiting the other air component of Germany's campaign against Britain, Luftflotte 3, to night operations.  This move later proves disastrous.

As per Operation Loge (named for the Norse god of fire), the Luftwaffe launches some 328 bombers, escorted by 617 fighters, against London, England.  This is the beginning of the German campaign against British urban targets, otherwise known as ‘the Blitz.’

In reaction to RAF BC strikes which began on 25 August against Berlin and other major cities, German Führer Adolf Hitler officially lifted the ban against bombing London on 30 August.  This change in policy was previously championed by CG Luftflotte 2 GenFM Albert Kesselring, who felt that such a campaign might force the RAF into large-scale combat.  Lacking the range to bomb targets throughout the entirety of England, Kesselring felt that the airfield bombing campaign was ineffectual.  This was in stark contrast to CG Luftflotte 3 GenFM Hugo Sperrle, who advocated continuing the airfield campaign, convinced that German victory claims were a poor indicator of the RAF’s current strength.

Publicly embarrassed by the recent bombings and the Luftwaffe’s seeming inability to prevent them, RLM RM Hermann W. Göring endorsed Kesselring’s proposal.  In truth, this was an act of some desperation, as the failure to achieve air superiority throughout August saw Hitler postpone the invasion date to 21 September – if Britain was to be invaded at all, the landings had to be made before October.  Hitler announced the beginning of the urban campaign on 4 September at the opening of the annual Winterhilfswerk program at the Berlin Sportpalast.

Click here to read a transcription of Hitler’s speech at the Berlin Sportpalast.

The opening of the Blitz comes as a surprise to RAF controllers and the interceptions are somewhat delayed.  This is particularly apparent in the units of 12 Group under AVM Trafford Leigh-Mallory.  Up until this point, the bulk of the fighting was done by AVM Keith R. Park’s 11 Group, who covered the whole of southeast England.  Park and Leigh-Mallory hotly disagreed as to interception methods, with Park advocating immediate interceptions while Leigh-Mallory advocated attacking in large groups even if it meant catching the Germans after they had dropped their loads.  This day sees the first use of Leigh-Mallory’s “Big Wing” theory.  Due to the inevitable delays caused by the forming of units after take-off, few aircraft of 12 Group see combat this day.

Two He-111s of III/KG26 bomb the Crown Tube Works of Birmingham, England this night.  This is the first operational use of the Y-Gerät (Y-Apparatus) blind bombing system.

While simple in concept, Y-Gerät is operationally the most complex of the three German blind-bombing systems.  One of two beam "apparatuses" developed under WOUTAN (after the Norse god Odin for his single eye), Y-Gerät operates on only one beam.  The bomber follows a 45 MC beam toward the target, relaying via radar transponder a signal back to the transmitter station.  When the bomber is over the target, the transmitter station gives the signal to release.  Since progress is monitored from the ground, Y-Gerät is limited to a single aircraft per station.  Despite this handicap, III/KG26 continues trial strikes using Y-Gerät, training as a pathfinder force throughout the winter of 1940/1941.

Air Chf Mshl Sir Charles F. A. Portal formally replaces Air Chf Mshl Sir Cyril L. N. Newall as CAS, with Air Mshl Sir Richard E. C. Peirse taking over as CINC RAF BC.  In a disgusting display of political intrigue, the removal of Newall is the first of a series of sackings in RAF leadership.  A month later, CINC RAF FC Air Mshl Sir Hugh C. T. Dowding is replaced by former DCAS Air Mshl W. Sholto Douglas, and on 27 December, CO 11 Group AVM Keith R. Park is replaced by former CO 12 Group AVM Trafford Leigh-Mallory.

These changes bear consideration.  While Newall and Dowding were already due for retirement - both are nearly a decade older than their contemporaries - their sackings come on the heels of the RAF's greatest success.  In truth, two cabals were at play.  By no means a personable man, Dowding already had a poor relationship with MRAF Lord Hugh M. Trenchard that dated back to the Great War, and Trenchard, elderly but ever-present, consistently pushed for his removal (the success of FC in comparison to BC's poor performance did not help).  Worse, Dowding sided with Park in the controversial "Big Wing" argument, coming to a head at an Air Ministry meeting on 17 October.  Dowding and Park were subjected to a kangaroo-court presided over by Douglas, with Leigh-Mallory going so far as to bring celebrity ace Wg Cdr Douglas R. S. Bader as a character witness.  Newall was supposedly ill at the time but it should be noted that he distanced himself from the issue while Douglas firmly sided with Leigh-Mallory.

Newall was under a great deal of stress and memos by Douglas helped spread rumors that Newall was too frail to continue.  In reality, much of this stress was the result of Newall running afoul of Minister of Aircraft Production Lord W. Max Aitken.  Already one of the richest men in the UK, Aitken was one of PM the Rt. Hon. Winston L. Spencer-Churchill's closest confidants and was generally held responsible for the increase in aircraft production throughout 1940.  The degree to which Aitken was responsible for this is debatable, but his bombastic personality and political power made him a formidable enemy.  Aitken's poor relationship with Newall reached a boiling point when Aitken came upon a series of memos critical of RAF command by Wg Cdr Edgar J. McCloughry (angry at being passed over for promotion) and brought them to the PM's attention.

Newall and Dowding's enemies found common cause with the release of the Salmond Report on 18 September.  The Luftwaffe night-bombing campaign caught the RAF surprisingly unprepared and MRAF Sir John M. Salmond was ordered to investigate possible solutions.  Meeting on 25 September, political leaders were outraged by Dowding's curt dismissal of the report's recommendations (many of which were, in fact, ridiculous).  As such, Newall's relief is treated as a necessary step in the violent rush to reorganize RAF command, with Dowding being first and foremost on the list of those needing replacement.  Political infighting had already labelled Newall as feeble and ineffectual and Dowding as close-minded, the RAF's lackluster response to the night raids throughout late-1940 being the final straw.

19 November 1940

Luftflotte 2 and 3 launches 439 Do-17s, He-111s, and Ju-88s against Birmingham, England this night, with another 30 bombers conducting diversionary strikes against London.   The operation is led by pathfinders of KG100 using X-Gerät.  One of the bombers, Ju-88A “B3-YL” (2189, KG54), is shot down by Bristol Beaufighter “H for Harry” (R2098, 604 Squadron), crewed by Flt Lt John Cunningham and Sgt John R. Phillipson.  Cunningham and Phillipson are the first airmen to down an enemy aircraft using airborne interception radar (AI).  (450 killed)

While it would take time to train radar operators and develop more efficient radars than the crude Mk. IV used this night, AI ultimately becomes the final solution to night bomber interception.  Still, CINC RAF FC Air Mshl Sir Hugh C. T. Dowding's dismissal of the Salmond report and its insistence on visual tactics, such as having day-fighters carry wing-mounted spotlights and follow ground-based searchlights, had not gone over well, his superiors demanding a response other than simply waiting for AI to enter service.  As such, Dowding is dismissed on 24 November.

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